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Journal ArticlesTip: Click on each link to expand and view the content. Click again to collapse. Chapter 2 - What you Can (and Can't) Do with Qualitative ResearchEffectively Communicating Qualitative Research
Joseph G. Ponterotto and Ingrid Grieger The Counseling Psychologist 2007 35: 404 Aimed at graduate students, this article discusses the basic characteristics of qualitative research and how to present your findings effectively. Does British Sociology Count? Sociology Students' Attitudes toward Quantitative MethodsMalcolm Williams, Geoff Payne, Liz Hodgkinson & Donna Poade Sociology, Vol. 42, No. 5, 1003-1021 (2008) This paper reports findings from a national survey of British sociology students’ attitudes towards quantitative methods. What Good Is Polarizing Research Into Qualitative and Quantitative?
How useful is the distinction between qualitative and quantitative methods? This paper argues that it is best to treat research methods as a continuum from which we select methods depending on our research question. Chapter 3 and 4 - The Research ExperienceOf Quant Jocks and Qual Outsiders: Doctoral student narratives on the Quest for Training in Qualitative Research Amy D. Benton, David K. Androff, Ben-David Barr & Sarah Taylor Qualitative Social Work 2012 11: 232 originally published online 24 June 2011 In this paper, Amy Benton and others present personal narratives of four current and recent doctoral students who have incorporated qualitative methods into their research. The themes that emerge from these narratives include early exposure to qualitative methods and a commitment to methodological pluralism, as well as experiences with encountering biases, additional costs, and the challenges of translating the methodologies of other disciplines. Although this paper focuses on American social work PhD students, it has relevance for all beginning qualitative researchers. Learning to Do Qualitative Data Analysis: An Observational Study of Doctoral Work What happens in the early stages of a student research project? In this fascinating article, based on their own supervisor-student relationship, Li and Seale examine the kinds of problems that can arise in analyzing your data and how these problems can be overcome.
Justifying Knowledge, Justifying Method, Taking Action: Epistemologies, Methodologies, and Methods in Qualitative Research A spy, a shill, a go-between or a sociologist: unveiling the ‘observer’ in participant observer
Repositioning Documents in Social Research 'Entering the blogosphere': some strategies for using blogs in social research
Feminist Conversation Analysis: Research by Students at the University of York, UK
Moira and Simon’s research, discussed in Chapter Three, made use of conversation analysis (CA). In this paper, Celia Kitzinger offers a non-technical introduction to feminist CA, illustrated with interviews with undergraduate, MA and PhD students that she has supervised. This is an opportunity to read students speaking in their own words about what it is that has drawn them to CA as an intellectual and political endeavour. Chapter 6 - Formulating a Research QuestionNavigating the waves: the usefulness of a pilot in qualitative research
Helen Sampson Qualitative Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, 383-402 (2004) Helen Sampson suggests that a pilot study is very valuable prior to the main body of data collection. What Good Is Polarizing Research Into Qualitative and Quantitative? Talking and Thinking About Qualitative Research Chapter 7 - TheoryReflexive Accounts and Accounts of Reflexivity in Qualitative Data Analysis
Natasha S. Mauthner & Andrea Doucet Sociology, Vol. 37, No. 3, 413-431 (2003) Sometimes social theory can appear to be abstract and daunting. In this paper, Mauthner and Doucet discuss how basic theoretical issues arose and were settled during their own PhD dissertations. Data analysis and 'theorizing as ideology'
In this fascinating paper, based on her study of music education, Kathryn Roulson reviews the problems she discovered in her first research report and the importance of theoretical ideas in reshaping her data analysis. Pluralism in qualitative research: the impact of different researchers and qualitative approaches on the analysis of qualitative dataNollaig Frost, Sevasti Melissa Nolas, Belinda Brooks-Gordon, Cigdem Esin, Amanda Holt, Leila Mehdizadeh & Pnina Shinebourne Qualitative Research 2010 10: 441 Qualitative research can mean many different things. This article presents very different analyses of a single semi-structured interview transcript using different theoretical approaches: grounded theory, Foucauldian discourse analysis, interpretative phenomenological analysis and narrative analysis. The variation and agreement in the analysis of the data are discussed. The implications of the findings on the conduct, writing and presentation of qualitative research are presented. Discursive Psychology: Between Method and Paradigm
Theorizing in Qualitative Research: A Cultural Studies Perspective
Anselm Strauss This paper is authored by Anselm Strauss, one of the founders of the Grounded Theory approach. It offers insights into how to develop substantive and formal theories from qualitative data. Problematics of grounded theory: innovations for developing an increasingly rigorous qualitative method Grounded theory seeks to generate codes from data. This advanced paper considers how codes can be related to one another. It illustrates the argument with research on homelessness. Common knowledge: reflections on narratives in community This paper shows how narrative analysis can be carried out. It is based on interviews with schoolchildren. Madness to the method? Using a narrative methodology to analyse large-scale complex social phenomena In this paper, Liz Stanley considers how you can use a narrative inquiry approach for investigating large-scale complex social phenomena, in this case connected with the rise of nationalism in South Africa and women’s role in it Chapter 8 - MethodologyThe Need for Thin Description
Wayne H. Brekhus, John F. Galliher & Jaber F. Gubrium Qualitative Inquiry, Vol. 11, No. 6, 861-879 (2005) Qualitative research is supposed to offer ‘rich’ descriptions of social reality. This paper shows that such richness will vary according to our research problem and methodology. Natural’ and ‘contrived’ data: a sustainable distinction?
Two kinds of natural
The two articles above debate whether naturally-occurring material should be the basic data for qualitative research. Susan Speer raises several reservations about the value of this assumption. To which, Jonathan Potter replies, arguing that naturally-occurring data remains highly relevant to qualitative research Triangulation and integration: processes, claims and implications
Beginning researchers are often tempted to use mixed or multiple methods. This paper reviews the problems in working with multiple datasets and how these problems can be overcome. Tracking the Reflexivity of the (Dis)Engaged Citizen Some Methodological Reflections
Following on from the themes raised in the previous paper, Markham and Couldry discuss how they integrated different datasets in their research on citizenship. Chapter 9 - How Many Cases Do You Need?The process of sample recruitment: an ethnostatistical perspective Michelle Thomas, Michael Bloor & Jane Frankland Qualitative Research, Vol. 7, No. 4, 429-446 (2007) This paper shows how a sample was gathered during four research studies. It is particular useful for revealingthe practical issues involved in recruiting people to study. Manhunt : The Challenge of Enticing Men to Participate in a Study on Friendship Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research
You Can Generalize Stupid! Social Scientists, Bent Flyvbjerg, and Case Study Methodology
Methodological Practicalities in Analytical Generalization
We are usually concerned about the number of cases in our study because we want to generalize from our findings. In this paper, Bente Halkier discusses three ways in which we can generalize in case study research ‘How many cases do I need?’: On science and the logic of case selection in field-based research
Chapter 10 - EthicsEthics and the Practice of Qualitative Research
Ian Shaw Qualitative Social Work 2008 7: 400 This article shows how the application of ethical codes is complicated in qualitative research. In particular, the issues of consent and social justice are highlighted. Research Ethics Review and the Sociological Research Relationship
Feminist Research Practice: Using Conversation Analysis to Explore the Researcher’s Interaction with Participants
Informed Consent, Deception, and Research Freedom in Qualitative Research
Sometimes we need to conceal our identity in order to research a particular setting. In this paper, based on his own research in a cancer hospital, Marco Marzano considers when it is appropriate to use concealment and when it should be abandoned. As Marco’s paper shows, we always need to relate ethical decisions to the context which we are studying Between Overt and Covert Research: Concealment and Disclosure in an Ethnographic Study of Commercial Hospitality
Peter Lugosi’s paper addresses the issues of concealment and context in a different research setting.
The Art and Politics of Covert Research Doing `Situated Ethics' in the Field The final paper on ethics reviews a study of ‘bouncers’ in Manchester, UK. It returns to the issue of covert research and considers the relevance of ‘informed consent’ in such a setting. Chapter 11 - Writing a Research ProposalHow do we Talk to Each other? Writing Qualitative Research for Quantitative Readers
Linda Liska Belgrave, Diane Zablotsky & Mary Ann Guadagno Qualitative Health Research, Vol. 12, No. 10, 1427-1439 (2002) Based on the experience of reviewing small grant applications, this paper considers how to write an effective research proposal in a climate where quantitative research is the norm. Chapter 12 - Collecting Qualitative DataCreating the interviewer: identity work in the management research process
Catherine Cassell Qualitative Research, Vol. 5, No. 2, 167-179 (2005) In this paper, Catherine Cassell, a management researcher, discusses the dynamics of interviewing. She shows that the interview involves considerable ‘identity work’. Online Dating and Mating: The Use of the Internet to Meet Sexual Partners
Nicholas Hookway Qualitative Research, Vol. 8, No. 1, 91-113 (2008) Since 1999, blogs have become a significant part of online culture. In this paper, Nicholas Hookway considers how you can treat the ‘blogosphere’ as data. Focus groups and the study of violence
Tarja Pösö, Päivi Honkatukia and Leo Nyqvist have written a paper on violence in childrens’ homes which is a good example of focus group research. Writing fieldnotes in an ethnographic study of peers – collaborative experiences from the field
Using Photographs to Capture Women's Experiences of Chemotherapy: Reflecting on the Method
Transcription in Research and Practice: From Standardization of Technique to Interpretive Positionings
Qualitative research usually involves careful recording and transcription. This paper discusses the practical and theoretical choices you make when you transcribe your data. Chapter 13 - Developing Data AnalysisNotes on the Nature and Development of General Theories
Anselm Strauss Qualitative Inquiry, Vol. 1, No. 1, 7-18 (1995) http://qix.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/1/1/7 This paper is authored by Anselm Strauss, one of the founders of the Grounded Theory approach. It offers insights into how to develop substantive and formal theories from qualitative data. Problematics of grounded theory: innovations for developing an increasingly rigorous qualitative method Grounded theory seeks to generate codes from data. This advanced paper considers how codes can be related to one another. It illustrates the argument with research on homelessness. Common knowledge: reflections on narratives in community This paper shows how narrative analysis can be carried out. It is based on interviews with schoolchildren. Madness to the method? Using a narrative methodology to analyse large-scale complex social phenomena In this paper, Liz Stanley considers how you can use a narrative inquiry approach for investigating large-scale complex social phenomena, in this case connected with the rise of nationalism in South Africa and women’s role in it Dismantling Mantelpieces: Narrating Identities and Materializing Culture in the HomeRachel Hurdley Sociology, Vol. 40, No. 4, 717-733 (2006) http://soc.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/40/4/717 Rachel Hurdley’s paper is an illustration of how narrative analysis can be used in the analysis of interview data. There’s Risks in Everything: Extreme-Case Formulations and Accountability in Inquiry TestimonyJack Sidnell Discourse & Society, Vol. 15, No. 6, 745-766 (2004) http://das.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/15/6/745 In this paper, based on a video record of a public inquiry, Jack Sidnell shows how you can begin to theorise through qualitative data. On Being a 'Good' Mother: The Moral Presentation of Self in Written Life StoriesVanessa May Sociology, Vol. 42, No. 3, 470-486 (2008) http://soc.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/42/3/470 Vanessa May’s paper shows how you can use written life stories in qualitative research. Writing small discoveries: an exploration of fresh observers’ observationsAksel H. Tjora Chapter 14 - CAQDAS‘Using computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software to develop a grounded theory project’, Bringer, J.D., Johnston, L.H. and Brackenridge, C.H. Field Methods, 18: 245-26 This paper provides a detailed description of how researchers used NVivo to support a grounded theory study of swimming coaches’ perceptions of sexual relationships in sport. Developing and using a codebook for the analysis of interview data: an example from a professional development research project’, This paper describes the development of coding scheme for analysing qualitative data. Examples are given from a study of mathematics teachers who were taking part in a new approach to teaching. Theory-driven codes and data-driven codes are distinguished from each other, and examples of each are given. Hsieh, H-F., and Shannon, S.E. Three different approaches to analysing the content of text are described in this paper, and illustrated through examples taken from research into end-of-life care. The three types of analysis are labelled conventional, directed and summative.
Chapter 15 - Quality in Qualitative ResearchThe Ethnographic Method in Sociology Raymond L. Gold Qualitative Inquiry, Vol. 3, No. 4, 388-402 (1997) In this paper, Raymond Gold shows how ethnographic work can be scientifically credible. Generalization in Qualitative Research Counting in Qualitative Research: Why to Conduct it, When to Avoid it, and When to Closet it
This paper reviews why counting is a controversial issue in qualitative research and explains how this controversy creates “multiple audience problem” for qualitative researchers. It goes on to identify the purposes that can be served by four different types of counting Validity in qualitative research revisited
Chapter 16 - Evaluating Qualitative ResearchQualitative Quality: Eight “Big-Tent” Criteria for Qualitative Research Sarah J. Tracy Qualitative Inquiry 16(10) 837–851, 2010 http://qix.sagepub.com/content/16/10/837.full.pdf+html Sarah Tracy presents what she sees as eight key markers of quality in qualitative research including (a) worthy topic, (b) rich rigour, (c) sincerity, (d) credibility, (e) resonance, (f) significant contribution, (g) ethics, and (h) meaningful coherence. Ethnographic evidence: The value of applied ethnography in healthcare Jan Savage, PhD, BSc(Hons), RN In this article, pitched at an introductory level, Jan Savage discusses the value of ethnographic work in the context of the debate about evidence-based healthcare. Life is out there: a comment on Griffin
Following my critique of some interview studies in Chapter 16, Potter and Hepburn’s short piece offers further criticism of over-reliance on interview data. Objectivity and Subjectivity in the Ethnographic Method
In this article, Allan Hegelund reviews the categories of ‘objectivity’ and ‘subjectivity’. He shows how theoretical models can shape what these terms mean in qualitative research. Auditing Constructivist Inquiry: Perspectives of Two Stakeholders
The concept of ‘audit’ is a useful way of thinking about the evaluation of qualitative research. In this paper, Rodwell and Byers show the standards through which different audiences may audit our work. Chapter 20 - Your Methodology ChapterNavigating the waves: the usefulness of a pilot in qualitative research Helen Sampson Qualitative Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, 383-402 (2004) In line with my suggestion that you keep a research diary, in this paper, Helen Sampson argues that you should report both your findings and the natural history of your research. She also suggests that a pilot study is very valuable prior to the main body of data collection. Encounters and Directions in Research Chapter 21 - Writing your Data ChaptersEffectively Communicating Qualitative Research Joseph G. Ponterotto and Ingrid Grieger The Counseling Psychologist 2007 35: 404 Aimed at graduate students, this article discusses the basic characteristics of qualitative research and how to present your findings effectively. 'Dangerous fieldwork' re-examined: the question of researcher subject position Data analysis and 'theorizing as ideology' Writing the Exotic, the Authentic, and the Moral: Romanticism as Discursive Resource for the Ethnographic Text Chapter 23 - Making Good Use of your SupervisorAcquiring a Sociological Identity: An Observational Study of a PhD Project Sarah Li & Clive Seale Sociology, Vol. 42, No. 5, 987-1002 (2008) In this fascinating paper, Sarah Li and Clive Seale show how, during the course of her supervision by Clive, Sarah took on a new professional identity (from nurse to sociologist). Chapter 26 - Getting PublishedImproving the Odds of Publishing Inductive Qualitative Research in Premier Academic Journals Quy Nguyen Huy Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 2012 48: 282 This paper explores the challenges researchers face in developing qualitative work to the standards required for publication in top international journals. It lists common mistakes that we make and offers advice on how to get your work published. Food for Thought: Nourishing the Publication of Qualitative Research This paper considers several key questions:
What, We Worry?: The Pleasures and Costs of Defective Memory for Qualitative Sociologists Chapter 27 - AudiencesEffectively Communicating Qualitative Research Joseph G. Ponterotto and Ingrid Grieger The Counseling Psychologist 2007 35: 404 Aimed at graduate students, this article discusses how we can write effectively for different audiences. Building Confidence in Qualitative Research: Engaging the Demands of Policy Practice-based Evidence: Towards Collaborative and Transgressive Research Improving the link between policy research and practice: using a scenario workshop as a qualitative research tool in the case of genetically modified crops
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Unreliable narrators? ‘Inconsistency’ (and some inconstancy) in interviews